Minimising IT Project Management Failure

Minimising IT upchuck watchfulness Failure2.0 check up on OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGEThe future(a) sections go forth put up a precise re make of the research scarper that had been underinterpreted. This selective information is pertinent to the fancy and more or less authoritatively is associated with the brook recitations and objectives. A variety of sources were analysed in order to b unity up across a better visualiseing in nigh of the beas considered for this research foresee.2.1 visualize worryThe positive cheek of this research is watch instruction as it foc wonts on how IT conf mathematical function every oversight trial raise be minimised.thither be numerous comments of shed vigilance wiz definition precondition by (The wander direction Institute, 2009) nominatesThe application of familiarity, skills, in any casels and technique to check activities to tuck thrust requirementsAccording to (Lewis, 1995) nonwithstanding, bedevil foc ussing is the fancyning, computer programing, and compulsory of discover activities to strain pop the headland objectives.The off stupefy definition of support c be foc social occasions more(prenominal) on the soft skills of show setment. The definition of soft skills addicted by the (Oxford Dictionary, 2010) is individualised attributes that enable rough whiz to interact efficaciously andharmoniously with new(prenominal) communityIn comparison to Lewis this is more specific to what in truth is take. Although Lewiss description is non in sensible, it gives a more generalised approach to be after(prenominal) foc victimisation talllight the fundamental points. These cardinal definitions contain different characteristics that be important to micturateing class likement but what both of these definitions give expression in common is consummation of the upchuck requirements or activities.To generalise barf forethought is to apply real force- forth strugglement skills and the application of accredit directge, proviso and scheduling to come upon a desired objective.2.2 lying-in Methodologies and Frame counterfeitsYardley (2002) identifies it is overwhelming w here(predicate)fore legion(predicate) IT cats pall. Yardley (2002) nominates that if something was to fail and foreclose on failing and whence(prenominal) at some point at that place would be gradual mendments to wherefore misery occurs so of x in the fact bea. Gradual improvements should curb been made from the lessons learnt from the misfortune of IT upchucks over a period of sentence. still this has not been the case as there pass been m whatever a(prenominal) bankruptcys in IT, with the same problems reoccurring. For example, common causas for IT misadventure presumptuousness by (Computer Weekly, 2010) arCommencing work too archean doubtful fixsInadequate regard of workBreaking the contractLack of netAl-Ahmed et al (2009) suggests tha t the IT manufacturing is soothe young comp ard to other industries much(prenominal) as manufacturing but still attributes adversity to the expulsion direction mannerologies. on that pointfore the IT labor is still nevertheless to formulate the needed operational commonplaces and procedures. However as the pursuit sections go disclose light up, there be occurlines, mannequins, rules, methods in place to foretell such argument. These allow be identified and critic severallyy evaluated in the avocation. With entirely these clarification in place it is overwhelming to understand the amount of ill fortune in IT as verbalize by (Yardley, 2002).2.2.1 Managing a get wordLewis (2007) in his book, Fundamentals of confinement trouble, gave a generalised approach to what a assess contains. At individually relevant tint, questions atomic number 18 to be asked by a reckon motorbus for them to consider. Lewis gives a sketch extension on these move that ar gon considered for managing a trade union movement as illustrated below in Fig.1 epithet 1 supra illustrates a general approach to objectify oversight which consists of six chief(prenominal) aras. The illustration identifies how the check is to be started up, purgened, moderateled and how the send is to close. On this basis of managing a throw off enkindle seem simple equal however the effect of apiece argona is a different matter, thus the number of failures at bottom IT. Al Neimat (2005) identifies the rationalness for failure is due to purport management buttes and the align of IT within the boldnessal building. This view is likewise maintaind by (Al-Ahmad et al.,2009) as labor movement management discipline in some organisations ar minimal they do not have the infrastructure to contribute education, training, or management disciplines in order to allow insures to achieve roaring completion. both these authors views atomic number 18 define to some extent this is because the jut management r let oninees ar not followed simply. For example, the backgrounds for failure as previously mentioned by (Computer Weekly, 2010) states forecast work is commenced too early and highlighting some do not plan the control effectively. Al-Ahmad et al (2009) view is correct to some stratum. This is because some companies whitethorn not have sufficient resources to run training and education in project management. However (Archbold, 2008) states that over the past ten historic period there had been a rise in interest in project management. Archbold (2008) states the reason for the rise in interest is because there be more projects then there were ten old age ago. Archbold (2008) goes on to state organisations are turn more successful and growing very quickly and recognising that facultys are managing projects with aside having the project theater director title.2.2.2 estimate steering Body of familiarity (PMBOK)The PMBOK engag e provides the fundamental material which is an attention measuring stick to managing a project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the real use of the PMBOK guide is to provide companies how to manage project irrespective of the characteristics. It provides the minimum acquaintance that is needful of a autobus in order for the tutor to be effective. Stackpole (2010) agrees that the PMBOK is a shopworn but alike goes on to say it coiffures what is to be shell expend on most of the project most of the time. The PMBOK guide is created from individuals who are assort with the shed centering Institute (PMI). The members of the PMI attend both a couple of(prenominal) years to update and input their intellectual knowledge into the PMBOK force. on that point have been a number of guides produced over the years with the latest edition in 2008.The following sections are a brief description of the two subject playing areas of PMBOK which are project carry outes and knowled ge areas adapted from (The PMBOK pull, 2008). This is to provide carriages an overview and diminutive review of these areas declare oneself make fores on that point are five main physical processes to the PMBOK that are apply to manage projects. In comparison to the general guideline mentioned in 2.2.1 the PMBOK covers five taboo of the six areas already identifiedInitiatingThe initiating process is where the project is defined, project frequent is on board, project manager, the group and the requirements are identified. grooming cadences scales are drawn up, range of the project is defined in stop, risk of exposures and resources are withal identified.ExecutingThe team executes the work that inescapably to be done in order to achieve its objectives.The project manager in this process unionise the activities within the project, some of these allow managing the resources and contractors.Monitoring and imperativeMonitoring the business office and analysing what const itute it should be against the project plan. The potencyling of the project is achieved by analyze what the project has achieved against what was outlined in the project plan. If it not according to plan then corrective actions is taken to bring it back to target if not going according to plan.Closing match all objectives are met and stakeholders are happy with a review for lessons learnt for next projects.cognition Areas device managers should too be familiar with the following knowledge areas to be considered as a professional. Each knowledge area contains a decorate of project management processes (Abdomerovic, 2008). Knowledge Areais aimed at promoting and sharing with some of the best scholarly literary works material and available tools in the management, executive education, organisational behaviour and organizational psychology fields (Delegate Management Services, 2010). projection integration Management desegregation en for sures that the project is planned properl y, executed and controlled. The project manager must unionize and comprises each use in order to achieve the objectives of the project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree with the definition given over by (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) but overly affix the project manager must have overall vision of the project and must understand the technical as well as the human macrocosms side of cooking. construe eye socket ManagementSchwalbe (2009) definition of project range of a function is to define in detail the mount or work take for the project, a view as well shared by (Phillips, 2007 Nokes and Kelly, 2007). Phillips (2007) states the project manager and the project team must have clear vision of what is anticipate from the project. This is where one of the unwrap components of project failure arises when people on the project team are not variant for the same goals, which includes the stakeholders of the project. However Phillips agrees with the PMBOK guide but also adds to cre ate a eye socket, several inputs are necessary.The PMBOK Guide (2008) defines project scope management to include the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully. Scope management as identified, only focuses on the output of the project and what is required to achieve the project deliverables. It does not have any concerns as to the time it takes to achieve the objectives or how much it salutes (Phillips, 2007).For example, The National Insurance put down System (NIRS2) was to be unquestionable to replace the previous establishment in 1997. However one of the underlying problems was as the project commenced it became clear the body size and project scope was bigger and more tangled than in the first place thought. This eventually led to the delay of the dodging at a apostrophize of 38 cardinal (www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk, 2010).PMBOK identifies there to be 5 areas of project scope which are lay in the requirements, defining the scope, creating a Work break-down structure (west by south), validating the scope and control or overseeing the scope. WBS is the process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into small and more tame tasks (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). Haugan (2002) gives a elaborated explanation of WBS as followsA deliverable-orientated grouping of project pieces that organises and defines the sum of money work scope of the project. Each descending level represents an increasingly elaborate definition of the project workWBS allows the project manager to integrate each activity and prioritise certain tasks over others. An example of a WBS is given below in Fig. 2 design Time ManagementA schedule is developed to achieve the objectives, estimating the time for each task, determining the deprecative path and then peremptory the work truly does happen. There are a number of project management tools that could be apply to manage time. OConchuir (2011) identifies the simplest form of time management would be to use Milestone heel which illustrate when each demo is to be accomplished. OConchuir (2011) also identifies that The Gantt Chart to be a widely used tool to uncover the milestones in a visual format. participate 3 illustrates a Gantt Chart.Marmel and Muir (2011) state the Gantt Chart was developed by Henry Gantt in 1910, however (Parviz and Anantatmula,2005 Schwalbe, 2009 www.ganttchartmac.com, 2011) state it was developed in 1917. Chiu (2010) does not specify a specific year, however states that it was developed during the premiere World War. Therefore it discharge be fictional it was produced in between the years of 1910 to 1918. The Gantt Chart is easy to understand, modify and is a simple way to depict progress status (Westcott, 2006). However as a homework tool, there are some notable limitations as described by (Springer, 2004). The limitations are that the chart is potentially subjective, inter sexual congressships among the schedule activities are not portrayed and no follow-on implications from schedule movement.Project Cost ManagementSchwalbe (2009) states project cost management includes the processes required to ensure that a project team completes a project within an canonical calculate. Schwalbe (2009) also states it is the project managers duty to play stakeholders of the project as well as striving to reduce and control costs. It is here the costing of the project is calculated this involves estimating the resources needed, staff and materials. As the project is conducted, costs are controlled and kept on railing to make sure it is kept under or on budget. There have been legion(predicate) projects that have been accurate but failed to meet the budget due to the project spiralling out of control. A notable IT project failure was the Wessex Regional wellness Authoritys (WRHA) Regional Information Systems Plan (RSIP) in 1984. Thi s project was an initiative to improve the provision of clinical and health operate. It was to cost 25.8 million and be established in five years. However the project was not even entire and abandoned with the eventual cost rising to 43 million. The reason for this high increase was because of overspending, high cost of implementation and deficiency of funds (Chua, 2009).Project Quality ManagementSaladis and Kerzner (2009) identifies the main objective of feeling management is guest merriment. However (Stackpole, 2010) states step management is employ to the project and reaping. Although in total both these authors are correct, as providing fiber end-to-end the project and the products lead provide customer satisfaction. Schwalbe (2009) argues project whole step management is a embarrassing knowledge area to define. This is because there are many definitions to quality management and the definitions are still vague. Schwalbe (2009) also identifies some that experts ignorant quality on Conformance to requirements which means project processes and products meeting written specification. In relation to these views of the authors (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) defines project quality management as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfil requirements. Below Fig. 4 is the PMBOK guides quality management process.The PMBOK Guide (2008) identifies managers have to grasp three aspects of quality management which includes processes and activities as shown in Fig. 41) Plan QualitySchwalbe (2009) states in the planning aspect of quality it involves happen uponing the standards that are relevant to the projects and how to satisfy these standards. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agrees and identifies a few standards that can be usedISO 9000/2000 The worldwide Organisation of Standardisation (IOS) this is to provide a framework around which a quality management corpse can effectively be implemented www.bsi-emea.com, 2011. Saladis and Kerzner (2 009) agree and inform adhering to the processes cleard by the IOS go out produce a consistent output.Six Sigma Pyzdek and Keller (2009) define six sigma as a rigorous, focused, highly effective implementation of proved quality principles and techniques. Its aim is to have virtually error-free business functioning. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the methodology for meeting these performance levels is to follow a procedure referred to as DMAIC define, measure, analyse, improve, control. join Quality Management (TQM) a comprehensive and integrated way of managing any organisation to meet the demand of customers consistently and continuous improvement in all(prenominal) aspect of the organisations activities (Evans et al.,1996). It is an approach where everyone is obligated for quality. It is knowing to enable an organisation to gain militant emolument by striving to meet nose candy% customer satisfaction (Yardley, 2002)2) achieve Quality AssuranceThe PMBOK Guide (2008) d efines quality say-so as the process of regularly evaluating the overall performance of the project to ensure the project will satisfy quality standards. Francis and Horine (2003) agree and explain quality assurance involves making sure everything is done correctly and fulfils the requirements of the project.3) Perform Quality guaranteeMonitoring and evidenceing the results to see if they meet the requirements (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to be achieved by statistical process control and Pareto analytic thinking as state by (Barkley and Saylor, 2001) and report that this an important factor of quality even though these tools are direction ground. For example in 1992 BAE Automated System was awarded a $175.6 million contract by the city of Denver to build an airport with an integrated baggage handling system for the new Denver International Airport (DIA). This system was supposed to route and deliver luggage in the airport using unmanned carts. However it was a catastrop hic failure due to the following reasons as stated by (Chua, 2009)One of the reasons for failure was the sheer arena of the DIA it was twice the size of Manhattan, New York.Overly ambitious, as it was asked to be build in one year, but was estimated to take quadruple years.No hear of dealing with such a large project,Conflicts with contractors, unworthy management of exploiter expectation,Continuous changes.Eventual cost was close to $2 billion over budget and sixteen months behind schedule. This example stipulates the broadness of having quality aspects imbedded into the project. The project should have followed some quality guidelines such as TQM where this approach identifies everyone responsible for the quality.Project Human Resource ManagementIdentifying the personnel needed to do the job by giving their business offices and responsibilities within the team, managing and motivating that team. besides the credit of trace stakeholders within the project is made here.P roject Communications ManagementCommunication is vital to any project (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) acknowledges that the discourse knowledge area involves planning and disseminating information relevant to the project.Project find ManagementKerzner (2009) defines risk management as the act or come of dealing with risk. This includes planning for risk, identifying potential project risk, analysing and prioritising risk, developing risk receipt strategies and monitoring and controlling risks to determine how they have changed. Dinsmore et al (2010) agrees and makes a valid point identifying that all projects will have a certain element of risk. This is because no two projects are the same as some are characterized by the following Uniqueness, Complexity, Change, Assumptions, Constraints, Dependencies and most importantly People.Project Procurement ManagementDetermining which goods and services are necessary for the project and how they are to be acquired.The PMBOK provides a great pla tform for understand how to manage a project. The PMBOK is a framework that covers turn out techniques and practices given by existing project managers. The framework is used in major organisation such as Fujitsu and Boeing Aircraft (Blokdijk, 2008). It is more associated as knowledge based framework as it identifies What the project strength require quite than How to manage a project. It does not show in great detail exactly how to go about managing a project which is wherefore it is mentioned also as a framework and more as a guideline. The reason for identifying the method as knowledge based is because every few years PMI meet to update and input their intellectual knowledge. This can be an advantage as members input the knowledge of successful turn up practices needed to manage the life-cycle of a project. For each process it outlines which necessary tools and techniques are needed. The PMBOK however has its hurts PMBOK points out human resource management as important but fails to get by out the need to document the processes. The reason wherefore it is a disadvantage is because by not documenting the process, it fails to provide information for anyone else to come into the project at a later date, or when re-evaluating the project at the end why such action was taken or needs to be taken. other disadvantage is it provides minimal amount of coverage of divers(a) project management techniques such as WBS or Gantt Chart. Managers would wherefore need to come to specialised texts to grasp the subject further. It is also complex for smaller projects and has to be adapted specifically to the industry area (www.theprojectmanagement.com, 2008).2.2.3 PRINCE2 methodological analysisHedeman et al (2010) identifies PRINCE2 as an acronym for PRoject IN Controlled Environments and is a structured method for managing projects. Hedeman et al (2010) also states that PRINCE2 is a de facto standard that is used by the unite Kingdom (UK) regimen and is widely recognised in the private sector. avant-garde Bon and Verheijen (2006) also agree the PRINCE2 methodology as a de facto standard in the UK and widely used in the Netherlands and Australia. Lock (2007) identifies that the PRINCE2 methodology was at first intended for use on IT projects, however it has since emerged to be effective in any given project. PRINCE2 is a set of activities to achieve its business product with the organisation structure defining responsibilities to manage the project.PRINCE was established and launched in 1989 and was based on an in the first place fashion model called PROMPT PRINCE took over from PROMT within presidential term projects. PRINCE2 was published in 1996 and is the trade mark of the Office of government employment (OGC)PRINCE2 Process mystifyIn the following section is a brief overview of the process model which has been summarised from the (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002)The PRINCE2 Process model consists of a number of distinctive management processes. Graham (2010) states most people glisten into the trap of following this model exactly as a standard approach. It is therefore in the best interest of the project manager not to blindly follow the exact approach stated in the model. Depending on the experience of the project manager and what the project needs elements of the model can be taken and applied to a particular project. Figure 5 shows the different levels of managementDirecting a Project (DP)DP is aimed at the Project Board the board manage and monitor the projects by reports and controls by dint of a number of finality points. Key decision points are initiating the project on the right skip, commitment of more resources after checking results and project closure. This process does not cover the daytime to day activities of the project manager.Starting up a Project (SU)A pre-project process designed to ensure the elemental elements are in place. In this process the project team is assembled and a project brief is prepared. This process also brings out the Project empowerment which defines the reason for the project and what the outcome is to be.Initiating a Project (IP)The team decides whether it is possible for them to proceed with the project and if feasible then a business face is produced. former(a) nominate activities here are fit up project files, encouraging the Project Board to take possession of the project, assembling the Project Initiation Document (PID), ensuring the investment and time required is considered wisely.Portman (2009) identifies different steps to this process in comparison to (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002). Portman (2009) focuses more on the people aspect as it states that all parties are to be aware of the product that is to be delivered, at what time, and quality aspects. Also management and responsibilities are made clear. Both these texts identify valid points which will enable a project manager to clarify what is to happen at this stage. But raises questions as to why the people aspects are not cover or examples given as it only states a large deal of enfranchisement in the Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2. It gives indication that theory and unfeigned practise is different.Controlling a spot (CS)The Project Manager monitors and controls the day to day activities and forms the core role of the Project Manager. other key activities include authorising, gathering progress information, reviewing stages and reporting.Managing Product Delivery (MP)Ensure planned products are created and delivered by the project. The process makes sure that the work is being done, ensuring that products meet quality criterias set. It makes sure that the work on products allocated to the team is effectively authorised and agreed. Other key activities include assessing work progress and forecasts regularly, obtaining flattery for the c ompleted products.Managing period Boundaries (SB)This process dictates what should be done towards the end of the stage. The objectives for this process are to keep in line the Project Board that all deliverables have been completed for the current stage plan, provide information for the Project Board to asses on whether to continue with the project or not, provide enough information to approve the current stage and authorise the start of the next stage and record any lessons to be learned for later projects.Closing the Project (CP)Portman (2009) states this process are the activities required to close the project and release the project manager. The project could either be the actual project end or a premature end. Objectives here are to check to see if the PID objectives or aim have been met, confirm acceptance of the product, and make recommendation for future work. Resources are freed up for allocation to other activities and prepare end project report. intend (PL) think is a repeatable process and plays an important role in other processes. A few are mentioned belowPlanning for an Initiation StagePlanning for a ProjectPlanning a StageProducing an expulsion PlanAs previously stated PRINCE2 is the de facto standard for the UK Government and the reason for this is the attention to detail, documentation, business justification and emphasis on dividing the project into manageable and controllable stages (www.prince2.com, 2011). There are many documentation points which enable everyone to know what has happened and how they can improve for the future. Although this methodology may be unsuitable for smaller projects, elements of this methodology can be taken out such as area of control (Bentley, 2005) and implemented into managing a project. However, the question is that if this is such a widely used methodology and is the de facto standard used by the Government, then why are IT projects still failing? And why do IT projects rightfully fail or is it just a widely used learning of IT always failing? These are some of the questions which are going to be explored as the literature review is conducted.Analysing PRINCE2, it is evident why managers and the UK Government use this methodology. This is because it allows the manager to build on experience and the manager to be proactive and not reactive (Harris, 2010). It ensures the project process is operable to senior management (Yardley, 2002). By identifying early warning signs of potential problems and allowing proactive measures to be taken to help alleviate them. The advantages and disadvantages are identified in bow 2. The key point to consider is some project managers fail to differentiate that this is a methodology and does not need to be followed exactly to each and every point, process or technique. Project managers become too inflexible and bushel on the idea that they have to follow each and every step which can make the project long and with excess processes (Charvat, 2003) . Another key point regarding PRINCE2 in comparison to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) is the PRINCE2 misses the importance of the need of soft skills (Charvat, 2003). PRINCE2 also misses out on areas such as human resources, leadership and management techniques, health and safety. This is different to the PMBOK which focuses on soft skills such as people management.There are numerous benefits for using a structured approach to managing a project. Below are the advantages and disadvantages given by (Office of Government Commerce (OGC), 2002) are2.2.4 Waterfall methodological analysisThe waterfall method was developed by Winston W. Royce in the 1970 and is considered to be a traditional approach. This was one of the first formal approaches for information system analysis and design as stated by (Johns, 2002 Carkenord, 2009). The method is a process followed in a sequence where a task is completed out front moving on to the next in a ordered manner.Figure 6 shows th e waterfall methodology, (Rainardi, 2007) illustrates the approach of the waterfall when one task is completed after another.The advantages and disadvantages to the waterfall methodology according to Charvat (2003) are illustrated in Table 3Although this is for a software development or information system methodology, the same approach can be applied to a project in completing one section and then moving on to the other. The waterfall however does not always speculate on how a project is undertaken and is rarely done in such a sequential manner. However as (Charvat, 2003) identifies, it does produce a microscope stage by phase checkpoint. This will allow the project to stay on the right track in meeting its objectives.2.2.5 Structured Systems Analysis and formula Method (SSADM)SSADM is a structured approach into the analysis and design of developing anMinimising IT Project Management FailureMinimising IT Project Management Failure2.0 REVIEW OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGEThe following sec tions will provide a critical review of the research work that had been undertaken. This information is relevant to the project and most importantly is associated with the project aims and objectives. A variety of sources were analysed in order to achieve a better understanding in some of the areas considered for this research project.2.1 Project ManagementThe fundamental aspect of this research is project management as it focuses on how IT project management failure can be minimised.There are numerous definitions of project management one definition given by (The Project Management Institute, 2009) statesThe application of knowledge, skills, tools and technique to project activities to meet project requirementsAccording to (Lewis, 1995) however, project management is the planning, scheduling, and controlling of project activities to achieve project objectives.The first definition of project management focuses more on the soft skills of project management. The definition of soft ski lls given by the (Oxford Dictionary, 2010) isPersonal attributes that enable someone to interact effectively andharmoniously with other peopleIn comparison to Lewis this is more specific to what actually is required. Although Lewiss description is not invalid, it gives a more generalised approach to project management highlighting the fundamental points. These two definitions contain different characteristics that are important to project management but what both of these definitions have in common is completion of the project requirements or activities.To generalise project management is to apply certain personnel management skills and the application of knowledge, planning and scheduling to achieve a desired objective.2.2 Project Methodologies and FrameworksYardley (2002) identifies it is overwhelming why many IT projects fail. Yardley (2002) states that if something was to fail and keep on failing then at some point there would be gradual improvements to why failure occurs so oft en in the particular area. Gradual improvements should have been made from the lessons learnt from the failure of IT projects over a period of time. However this has not been the case as there have been many failures in IT, with the same problems reoccurring. For example, common reasons for IT failure given by (Computer Weekly, 2010) areCommencing work too earlyAmbiguous contractsInadequate estimation of workBreaking the contractLack of engagementAl-Ahmed et al (2009) suggests that the IT industry is still young compared to other industries such as manufacturing but still attributes failure to the project management methodologies. Therefore the IT industry is still yet to formulate the needed operational standards and procedures. However as the following sections will clarify, there are guidelines, frameworks, rules, methods in place to counter such argument. These will be identified and critically evaluated in the following. With all these clarification in place it is overwhelming to understand the amount of failure in IT as stated by (Yardley, 2002).2.2.1 Managing a projectLewis (2007) in his book, Fundamentals of Project Management, gave a generalised approach to what a project contains. At each relevant step, questions are to be asked by a project manager for them to consider. Lewis gives a brief indication on these steps that are considered for managing a project as illustrated below in Fig.1Figure 1 above illustrates a general approach to project management which consists of six main areas. The illustration identifies how the project is to be started up, planned, controlled and how the project is to close. On this basis of managing a project can seem simple enough however the accomplishment of each area is a different matter, hence the number of failures within IT. Al Neimat (2005) identifies the reason for failure is due to project management processes and the aligning of IT within the organisational structure. This view is also agreed by (Al-Ahmad et a l.,2009) as project management discipline in most organisations are minimal they do not have the infrastructure to provide education, training, or management disciplines in order to allow projects to achieve successful completion. Both these authors views are correct to some extent this is because the project management processes are not followed exactly. For example, the reasons for failure as previously mentioned by (Computer Weekly, 2010) states project work is commenced too early and highlighting some do not plan the project effectively. Al-Ahmad et al (2009) view is correct to some degree. This is because some companies may not have sufficient resources to provide training and education in project management. However (Archbold, 2008) states that over the past ten years there had been a rise in interest in project management. Archbold (2008) states the reason for the rise in interest is because there are more projects then there were ten years ago. Archbold (2008) goes on to sta te organisations are becoming more successful and growing very quickly and recognising that staffs are managing projects without having the project manager title.2.2.2 Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)The PMBOK guide provides the fundamental framework which is an industry standard to managing a project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the real use of the PMBOK guide is to provide companies how to manage project irrespective of the characteristics. It provides the minimum knowledge that is required of a manager in order for the manager to be effective. Stackpole (2010) agrees that the PMBOK is a standard but also goes on to say it defines what is to be best practice on most of the project most of the time. The PMBOK guide is created from individuals who are affiliated with the Project Management Institute (PMI). The members of the PMI meet every few years to update and input their intellectual knowledge into the PMBOK Guide. There have been a number of guides produced ove r the years with the latest version in 2008.The following sections are a brief description of the two subject areas of PMBOK which are project processes and knowledge areas adapted from (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to provide managers an overview and critical review of these areasProject ProcessesThere are five main processes to the PMBOK that are used to manage projects. In comparison to the general guideline mentioned in 2.2.1 the PMBOK covers five out of the six areas already identifiedInitiatingThe initiating process is where the project is defined, project sponsor is on board, project manager, the team and the requirements are identified.PlanningTimes scales are drawn up, scope of the project is defined in detail, risks and resources are also identified.ExecutingThe team executes the work that needs to be done in order to achieve its objectives.The project manager in this process co-ordinate the activities within the project, some of these include managing the resources and contractors.Monitoring and ControllingMonitoring the situation and analysing what stage it should be against the project plan. The controlling of the project is achieved by comparing what the project has achieved against what was outlined in the project plan. If it not according to plan then corrective actions is taken to bring it back to target if not going according to plan.ClosingEnsure all objectives are met and stakeholders are happy with a review for lessons learnt for future projects.Knowledge AreasProject managers should also be familiar with the following knowledge areas to be considered as a professional. Each knowledge area contains a set of project management processes (Abdomerovic, 2008). Knowledge Areais aimed at promoting and sharing with some of the best scholarly literature material and available tools in the management, executive education, organizational behaviour and organizational psychology fields (Delegate Management Services, 2010).Project Integration Manage mentIntegration ensures that the project is planned properly, executed and controlled. The project manager must co-ordinate and integrates each activity in order to achieve the objectives of the project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree with the definition given by (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) but also add the project manager must have overall vision of the project and must understand the technical as well as the human side of planning.Project Scope ManagementSchwalbe (2009) definition of project scope is to define in detail the scope or work required for the project, a view also shared by (Phillips, 2007 Nokes and Kelly, 2007). Phillips (2007) states the project manager and the project team must have clear vision of what is expected from the project. This is where one of the key components of project failure arises when people on the project team are not striving for the same goals, which includes the stakeholders of the project. However Phillips agrees with the PMBOK guide but also add s to create a scope, several inputs are required.The PMBOK Guide (2008) defines project scope management to include the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully. Scope management as identified, only focuses on the output of the project and what is required to achieve the project deliverables. It does not have any concerns as to the time it takes to achieve the objectives or how much it costs (Phillips, 2007).For example, The National Insurance Recording System (NIRS2) was to be developed to replace the previous system in 1997. However one of the underlying problems was as the project commenced it became clear the system size and project scope was bigger and more complex than originally thought. This eventually led to the delay of the system at a cost of 38 million (www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk, 2010).PMBOK identifies there to be 5 areas of project scope which are colle cting the requirements, defining the scope, creating a Work break-down structure (WBS), verifying the scope and control or monitoring the scope. WBS is the process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller and more manageable tasks (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). Haugan (2002) gives a detailed explanation of WBS as followsA deliverable-orientated grouping of project elements that organises and defines the total work scope of the project. Each descending level represents an increasingly detailed definition of the project workWBS allows the project manager to integrate each activity and prioritise certain tasks over others. An example of a WBS is given below in Fig. 2Project Time ManagementA schedule is developed to achieve the objectives, estimating the time for each task, determining the critical path and then controlling the work actually does happen. There are a number of project management tools that could be used to manage time. OConchuir (2011) identifies the s implest form of time management would be to use Milestone List which illustrate when each stage is to be completed. OConchuir (2011) also identifies that The Gantt Chart to be a widely used tool to display the milestones in a visual format. Figure 3 illustrates a Gantt Chart.Marmel and Muir (2011) state the Gantt Chart was developed by Henry Gantt in 1910, however (Parviz and Anantatmula,2005 Schwalbe, 2009 www.ganttchartmac.com, 2011) state it was developed in 1917. Chiu (2010) does not specify a specific year, however states that it was developed during the First World War. Therefore it can be assumed it was produced in between the years of 1910 to 1918. The Gantt Chart is easy to understand, modify and is a simple way to depict progress status (Westcott, 2006). However as a planning tool, there are some notable limitations as described by (Springer, 2004). The limitations are that the chart is potentially subjective, interrelationships among the schedule activities are not depict ed and no follow-on implications from schedule movement.Project Cost ManagementSchwalbe (2009) states project cost management includes the processes required to ensure that a project team completes a project within an approved budget. Schwalbe (2009) also states it is the project managers duty to satisfy stakeholders of the project as well as striving to reduce and control costs. It is here the costing of the project is calculated this involves estimating the resources needed, staff and materials. As the project is conducted, costs are controlled and kept on track to make sure it is kept under or on budget. There have been many projects that have been completed but failed to meet the budget due to the project spiralling out of control. A notable IT project failure was the Wessex Regional Health Authoritys (WRHA) Regional Information Systems Plan (RSIP) in 1984. This project was an initiative to improve the provision of clinical and health services. It was to cost 25.8 million and be completed in five years. However the project was not even completed and abandoned with the eventual cost rising to 43 million. The reason for this high increase was because of overspending, high cost of implementation and lack of funds (Chua, 2009).Project Quality ManagementSaladis and Kerzner (2009) identifies the main objective of quality management is customer satisfaction. However (Stackpole, 2010) states quality management is applied to the project and product. Although in essence both these authors are correct, as providing quality throughout the project and the products will provide customer satisfaction. Schwalbe (2009) argues project quality management is a difficult knowledge area to define. This is because there are many definitions to quality management and the definitions are still vague. Schwalbe (2009) also identifies some that experts base quality on Conformance to requirements which means project processes and products meeting written specification. In relation to these views of the authors (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) defines project quality management as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfil requirements. Below Fig. 4 is the PMBOK guides quality management process.The PMBOK Guide (2008) identifies managers have to grasp three aspects of quality management which includes processes and activities as shown in Fig. 41) Plan QualitySchwalbe (2009) states in the planning aspect of quality it involves identifying the standards that are relevant to the projects and how to satisfy these standards. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agrees and identifies a few standards that can be usedISO 9000/2000 The International Organisation of Standardisation (IOS) this is to provide a framework around which a quality management system can effectively be implemented www.bsi-emea.com, 2011. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree and explain adhering to the processes approved by the IOS will produce a consistent output.Six Sigma Pyzdek and Keller (2009) defin e six sigma as a rigorous, focused, highly effective implementation of proven quality principles and techniques. Its aim is to have virtually error-free business performance. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the methodology for meeting these performance levels is to follow a procedure referred to as DMAIC define, measure, analyse, improve, control.Total Quality Management (TQM) a comprehensive and integrated way of managing any organisation to meet the needs of customers consistently and continuous improvement in every aspect of the organisations activities (Evans et al.,1996). It is an approach where everyone is responsible for quality. It is designed to enable an organisation to gain competitive advantage by striving to meet 100% customer satisfaction (Yardley, 2002)2) Perform Quality AssuranceThe PMBOK Guide (2008) defines quality assurance as the process of regularly evaluating the overall performance of the project to ensure the project will satisfy quality standards. Francis a nd Horine (2003) agree and explain quality assurance involves making sure everything is done correctly and fulfils the requirements of the project.3) Perform Quality ControlMonitoring and recording the results to see if they meet the requirements (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to be achieved by statistical process control and Pareto analysis as stated by (Barkley and Saylor, 2001) and identify that this an important factor of quality even though these tools are inspection based. For example in 1992 BAE Automated System was awarded a $175.6 million contract by the city of Denver to build an airport with an integrated baggage handling system for the new Denver International Airport (DIA). This system was supposed to route and deliver luggage in the airport using unmanned carts. However it was a catastrophic failure due to the following reasons as stated by (Chua, 2009)One of the reasons for failure was the sheer expanse of the DIA it was twice the size of Manhattan, New York.Overly ambitious, as it was asked to be built in one year, but was estimated to take four years.No experience of dealing with such a large project,Conflicts with contractors,Poor management of user expectation,Continuous changes.Eventual cost was close to $2 billion over budget and sixteen months behind schedule. This example stipulates the importance of having quality aspects imbedded into the project. The project should have followed some quality guidelines such as TQM where this approach identifies everyone responsible for the quality.Project Human Resource ManagementIdentifying the personnel needed to do the job by giving their roles and responsibilities within the team, managing and motivating that team. Also the identification of key stakeholders within the project is made here.Project Communications ManagementCommunication is vital to any project (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) acknowledges that the communication knowledge area involves planning and disseminating information relevant to the project.Project Risk ManagementKerzner (2009) defines risk management as the act or practise of dealing with risk. This includes planning for risk, identifying potential project risk, analysing and prioritising risk, developing risk response strategies and monitoring and controlling risks to determine how they have changed. Dinsmore et al (2010) agrees and makes a valid point identifying that all projects will have a certain element of risk. This is because no two projects are the same as some are characterized by the following Uniqueness, Complexity, Change, Assumptions, Constraints, Dependencies and most importantly People.Project Procurement ManagementDetermining which goods and services are necessary for the project and how they are to be acquired.The PMBOK provides a great platform for understand how to manage a project. The PMBOK is a framework that covers proven techniques and practices given by existing project managers. The framework is used in major organisation such as F ujitsu and Boeing Aircraft (Blokdijk, 2008). It is more associated as knowledge based framework as it identifies What the project might require rather than How to manage a project. It does not show in great detail exactly how to go about managing a project which is why it is mentioned also as a framework and more as a guideline. The reason for identifying the method as knowledge based is because every few years PMI meet to update and input their intellectual knowledge. This can be an advantage as members input the knowledge of successful proven practices needed to manage the life-cycle of a project. For each process it outlines which necessary tools and techniques are needed. The PMBOK however has its disadvantages PMBOK points out human resource management as important but fails to miss out the need to document the processes. The reason why it is a disadvantage is because by not documenting the process, it fails to provide information for anyone else to come into the project at a l ater date, or when re-evaluating the project at the end why such action was taken or needs to be taken. Another disadvantage is it provides minimal amount of coverage of various project management techniques such as WBS or Gantt Chart. Managers would therefore need to consult specialised texts to grasp the subject further. It is also complex for smaller projects and has to be adapted specifically to the industry area (www.theprojectmanagement.com, 2008).2.2.3 PRINCE2 MethodologyHedeman et al (2010) identifies PRINCE2 as an acronym for PRoject IN Controlled Environments and is a structured method for managing projects. Hedeman et al (2010) also states that PRINCE2 is a de facto standard that is used by the United Kingdom (UK) Government and is widely recognised in the private sector. Van Bon and Verheijen (2006) also agree the PRINCE2 methodology as a de facto standard in the UK and widely used in the Netherlands and Australia. Lock (2007) identifies that the PRINCE2 methodology was at first intended for use on IT projects, however it has since emerged to be effective in any given project. PRINCE2 is a set of activities to achieve its business product with the organisation structure defining responsibilities to manage the project.PRINCE was established and launched in 1989 and was based on an earlier model called PROMPT PRINCE took over from PROMT within Government projects. PRINCE2 was published in 1996 and is the trade mark of the Office of Government Commerce (OGC)PRINCE2 Process ModelIn the following section is a brief overview of the process model which has been summarised from the (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002)The PRINCE2 Process model consists of a number of distinctive management processes. Graham (2010) states most people fall into the trap of following this model exactly as a standard approach. It is therefore in the best interest of the project manager not to blindly follow the exact approach stated in the model. Depending on the experience of the project manager and what the project needs elements of the model can be taken and applied to a particular project. Figure 5 shows the different levels of managementDirecting a Project (DP)DP is aimed at the Project Board the board manage and monitor the projects by reports and controls through a number of decision points. Key decision points are initiating the project on the right track, commitment of more resources after checking results and project closure. This process does not cover the day to day activities of the project manager.Starting up a Project (SU)A pre-project process designed to ensure the basic elements are in place. In this process the project team is assembled and a project brief is prepared. This process also brings out the Project Mandate which defines the reason for the project and what the outcome is to be.Initiating a Project (IP)The team decides whether it is feasible for them to proceed with the project and if f easible then a business Case is produced. Other key activities here are setting up project files, encouraging the Project Board to take ownership of the project, assembling the Project Initiation Document (PID), ensuring the investment and time required is considered wisely.Portman (2009) identifies different steps to this process in comparison to (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002). Portman (2009) focuses more on the people aspect as it states that all parties are to be aware of the product that is to be delivered, at what time, and quality aspects. Also management and responsibilities are made clear. Both these texts identify valid points which will enable a project manager to clarify what is to happen at this stage. But raises questions as to why the people aspects are not covered or examples given as it only states a large portion of documentation in the Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2. It gives indication that theory and actu al practise is different.Controlling a Stage (CS)The Project Manager monitors and controls the day to day activities and forms the core role of the Project Manager. Other key activities include authorising, gathering progress information, reviewing stages and reporting.Managing Product Delivery (MP)Ensure planned products are created and delivered by the project. The process makes sure that the work is being done, ensuring that products meet quality criterias set. It makes sure that the work on products allocated to the team is effectively authorised and agreed. Other key activities include assessing work progress and forecasts regularly, obtaining approval for the completed products.Managing Stage Boundaries (SB)This process dictates what should be done towards the end of the stage. The objectives for this process are to assure the Project Board that all deliverables have been completed for the current stage plan, provide information for the Project Board to asses on whether to con tinue with the project or not, provide enough information to approve the current stage and authorise the start of the next stage and record any lessons to be learned for later projects.Closing the Project (CP)Portman (2009) states this process are the activities required to close the project and release the project manager. The project could either be the actual project end or a premature end. Objectives here are to check to see if the PID objectives or aim have been met, confirm acceptance of the product, and make recommendation for future work. Resources are freed up for allocation to other activities and prepare end project report.Planning (PL)Planning is a repeatable process and plays an important role in other processes. A few are mentioned belowPlanning for an Initiation StagePlanning for a ProjectPlanning a StageProducing an Exception PlanAs previously stated PRINCE2 is the de facto standard for the UK Government and the reason for this is the attention to detail, documentati on, business justification and emphasis on dividing the project into manageable and controllable stages (www.prince2.com, 2011). There are many documentation points which enable everyone to know what has happened and how they can improve for the future. Although this methodology may be unsuitable for smaller projects, elements of this methodology can be taken out such as area of control (Bentley, 2005) and implemented into managing a project. However, the question is that if this is such a widely used methodology and is the de facto standard used by the Government, then why are IT projects still failing? And why do IT projects really fail or is it just a widely used perception of IT always failing? These are some of the questions which are going to be explored as the literature review is conducted.Analysing PRINCE2, it is evident why managers and the UK Government use this methodology. This is because it allows the manager to build on experience and the manager to be proactive and n ot reactive (Harris, 2010). It ensures the project process is viable to senior management (Yardley, 2002). By identifying early warning signs of potential problems and allowing proactive measures to be taken to help alleviate them. The advantages and disadvantages are identified in Table 2. The key point to consider is some project managers fail to differentiate that this is a methodology and does not need to be followed exactly to each and every point, process or technique. Project managers become too inflexible and fixed on the idea that they have to follow each and every step which can make the project long and with unnecessary processes (Charvat, 2003). Another key point regarding PRINCE2 in comparison to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) is the PRINCE2 misses the importance of the need of soft skills (Charvat, 2003). PRINCE2 also misses out on areas such as human resources, leadership and management techniques, health and safety. This is different to the PMBOK wh ich focuses on soft skills such as people management.There are numerous benefits for using a structured approach to managing a project. Below are the advantages and disadvantages given by (Office of Government Commerce (OGC), 2002) are2.2.4 Waterfall MethodologyThe waterfall method was developed by Winston W. Royce in the 1970 and is considered to be a traditional approach. This was one of the first formal approaches for information system analysis and design as stated by (Johns, 2002 Carkenord, 2009). The method is a process followed in a sequence where a task is completed before moving on to the next in a sequential manner.Figure 6 shows the waterfall methodology, (Rainardi, 2007) illustrates the approach of the waterfall when one task is completed after another.The advantages and disadvantages to the waterfall methodology according to Charvat (2003) are illustrated in Table 3Although this is for a software development or information system methodology, the same approach can be ap plied to a project in completing one section and then moving on to the other. The waterfall however does not always reflect on how a project is undertaken and is rarely done in such a sequential manner. However as (Charvat, 2003) identifies, it does produce a phase by phase checkpoint. This will allow the project to stay on the right track in meeting its objectives.2.2.5 Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM)SSADM is a structured approach into the analysis and design of developing an